This is the abstract of my doctoral dissertation for the PhD at New York University. This research will be presented at the 2008 Hawaii International Conference on Education. I previously spoke on my work at the 2005 National Conference of the College Music Society in Quebec City, Canada.
This research addresses how the integration of representative music education computer software applications like Morton Subotnick’s Creating Music, Music Ace I and Music Ace II can be used in the creation of teaching environments designed to develop critically reflective music makers who engage synthesis, evaluation and critical reflection in the cognitive process. The project explores how the integration of such representative computer applications can assist in the development of teaching strategies designed to lead students to compose a text-based choral composition, an essential element of a general/choral curriculum. This problem is interrogated by creating a “meta-journal” monitoring the progress of the design of a text-based choral composition project using computer technology to assist in the creative, intuitive compositional process with the philosophy of constructivism engaged as a lens through which to view the educational setting. The curricular design of this project is geared toward students in a fourth and fifth grade music class who have been assigned an eight-week composition task guided by the creative, intuitive design of the computer applications within the school lab available to them. This project will use all performing forces available within the school, and will be shaped by the students’ imagination and interaction with the education computer software as well as their vision for a text-based choral composition with varied accompaniment including, but not limited to, piano, organ, band instruments, handbells, choir chimes, Orff rhythm instruments and digital synthesizer.
Constructivism has played a major role in the development of new technology for use in music education. As Peter Webster observes, “ the final force that underscores much of the more contemporary research on music technology is the interest in constructionism as a basis for learning” (2002, p. 418). Perkins, in addressing instructional design of technology, stresses two major points: “American education is failing to prepare our students to be successful in today’s world and, in order to remedy this situation, instruction must focus on retention, understanding and active use of what is learned” (1992, p. 92). Recognizing that there exists a great disconnect between classroom learning and music lab learning that has yet to be bridged will be the starting point for the pursuit of this complex research problem.
In this twenty-first century, computer technology has become commonplace in all levels of American education. This dissertation will explore processes music educators and curriculum developers go through when designing learning experiences that integrate current computer technology into their curricula, forging ways for music education practitioners and researchers to apply constructivist philosophy to the use of computer technology in the music classroom. Specifically, the research focus will draw on the use of Morton Subotnick’s “Making Music” integrated into a constructivist environment; linking together the, too often parallel and disconnected, pedagogical paradigms of the applied music classroom and the computer lab. Integral to the structure of this doctoral thesis will be the design of a student-centered project embedded within a curriculum spanning the academic year. The primary focus will be a computer composition project, however, the year-long curriculum will supply the landscape out of which this project is drawn. This curriculum will embed information and communication technology (ICT) into a music education program for primary school grades. Specifically, this work will focus on composition, an essential component of this curriculum and a particularly strong design feature of Subotnick’s work. In addition to narrating the process of this design, I will address important issues identified both in music education literature as well as problems that arise in the implementation of my curriculum in the pre-kindergarten through sixth grade general choral music program I teach.
Drawing from current literature in the areas of (1) philosophy of music education, (2) music education technology, (3) cognitive development and (4) learning theory, this work illuminates how students learn music best with computer-assisted instruction (CAI), how CAI coincides or departs with commonly established philosophies of music education (a praxial philosophy, or an aesthetic philosophy, for example), and how CAI addresses current theories in the field of cognitive psychology related to learning and development (for example, Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, or Robert Steinberg’s theory of successful intelligence).
The use of computers in music instruction is a broad-based concept that could potentially take many directions. Computers can be used to access the internet, for example, opening up possibilities for distance learning (synchronous and asynchronous), and collaboration (Rees, 2002). They can also be used in a variety of ways with software applications designed for composition, theory, and performance using the artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities of a computer (Rowe, 2001). Each is a large area of inquiry. My study will focus, however, on the integration of computer and internet technology that is available in a typical music classroom situation involving readily available applications on standard computer equipment.
Too often, music educators view music theory and composition as skill-based components of music curricula rather then explore the possibilities constructivist perspectives might lend to the engagement of student-centered problem solving in collaborative environments. My guiding research question is: “what effect would a computer-based learning experience grounded in composition have on students’ abilities to critically problem solve as they are guided to approach the study of composition?”
Friday, August 24, 2007
Planning a Class Like a Performance: Early Childhood
Planning a successful music class learning experience can be a lot like planning a musical performance. Teachers are at a great advantage when all the activities within a class period flow together like a concert or recital, preventing gaps of time in which students may lose their focus. The ideas of child developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) are useful in this planning process. The period of childhood development discussed here is Piaget’s “pre-operational thought” (ages two to seven) stage. The objectives of the music class example presented here are two-fold: (1) to teach musical concepts and skills and (2) to create an environment where students discover their passions, individual ideas and particular unique ways of engaging with the class activities. I urge the view that forming a class plan that resembles a musical performance is one good route toward achieving these aims.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) continues to be one of the most important figures in the theory of intellectual development. Born in Switzerland, he did most of his important work at the Rousseau Institute in Geneva where he found that younger children before the age of seven think in a different way than older children. He identified four general periods of development: sensori-motor (birth to two), preoperational thought (two to seven), concrete operations (seven to eleven) and formal operations (eleven to adult). The discussion here involves students in Piaget's period two, "preoperational thought," ages two to seven in which the child's mind is rapidly advancing to a new plane leading to the understanding of symbols (including images and words) and requiring a reorganization of thought from the previous sensori-motor period. This cannot be done all at once, and for some time during this period the child's thinking is unsystematic and illogical. [1] The symbolic activity involving nonlinguistic symbols in children's play (representation)[2] and the increasing ability of language to widen the child's horizons are important here.
At a very practical level, the idea of planning a music class as a performance serves to address some of the specific developmental needs of students in Piaget’s “preoperational thought” period. Children in the pre-kindergarten often engage in “parallel play” activities in which they create and imagine with their toys in an individual way rather than share in the act of playing as they begin to in kindergarten. In other words, they do their playing together, but separately. It is only later that they begin to interact with each other directly and understanding this is important from the standpoint of a music educator. The following music class plan demonstrates these theoretical ideas put into practice:
(1) First, the introductory meeting of students and teacher: this most often occurs with students filing into the music classroom or, in some instances, the music teacher entering the general classroom. It is very important that an introductory activity be immediate, musical and “attention-getting.” Immediate, for the sake of good classroom management in which students are kept busy right away and therefore out of trouble; musical, to set up preparatory work for the main lesson included for the day; “attention-getting” to enliven the students and create a community of enjoyment. When a learning experience is planned that achieves three aims, classroom time is being used optimally. In a performance, the artist begins to make music directly following the initial applause as he or she enters the stage. Likewise in a music class, it is important to start and activity right away. I often sing a greeting to my students and invite them to sing immediately in reply. This starts the class right away, but also sets a tone that they have left their other classes behind and now will be engaged in music making for the next period. As a song or exercise is being implemented, it is essential the teacher have the activity to follow clearly in mind. For example, I often have my pre-kindergarteners sit in a circle and sing an opening exercise. The whole class sings “yoo-hoo” on the notes “me- sol” inserting the name of each student as we go around the circle. The focus here is on gathering, group intonation and vocal warm-up. As this activity draws to a close, I have in mind immediately what we will do next. As in a piano recital, say, as soon as the audience applauds the first selection on the program, the performer immediately sits down and plays the second. So also in the music classroom, there can be no gaps of dead time in which the attention of the students and subsequent flow of the class might be lost.
This initial exercise is connected to the work of the day. If that work predominantly involves singing, as in our classroom example at hand, the opening exercise will be vocal. Specifically, if there is a choral piece or folk song that will be taught, the nature of the introductory vocal exercise should relate to that. For example, if we will be spending a lot of time on a slow canon with sustained whole note such as “Brother Martin,” the opening exercise would include the concepts of legato and adagio. Though it would not be expected that most pre-kindergarteners would understand these terms, they can still learn to execute them vocally. A further demonstration of these concepts can be emphasized by the performance of a short excerpt from a piece such as Beethoven’s Pathetique Sonata.
(2) Once the introduction is nearing completion, it is important the teacher be thinking what piece of music will follow. If even half a minute of dead time takes place between the opening exercise and the first piece or activity, the risk of losing the class is great. This next segment begins the “middle” of the class in which a predominant amount of singing occurs, though also interspersed with musical games, and perhaps solfege exercises as well. It can be useful to save some of the most fun activities for the end of classes such as games and other activities involving movement. If certain musical games involve the selection of a leader, this privilege can be reserved as a reward for the individual who demonstrated the best behavior throughout the class.
(3) As the class moves from the singing of the canon to the music appreciation time, I inform my students that the best listener will attain the privilege of being chosen to be the gatekeepers in the “Old Mr. Rabbit” game we will play at the end of class. This system of rewards teaches young students’ good manners when listening to a performance and creates an environment where they are able to focus their attention on a music appreciation example without distractions from their classmates. Rocky Mountain follows. The focus here is on vocal production and a more complex “sol-fa” pattern of “do-me-sol-la.” This is harder for pre-kindergartners than the previous Brother Martin, so I vary the singing with fast and slow to make it fun and keep their attention. Old Mr. Rabbit ends the class. This is a game in which everyone stands and forms a circle and two people face each other to form a gate. As the class sings and passes through the gate, on the last word of the song, the gates comes down and captures a “rabbit.”
Even in the best of circumstances, there will be times when students are not paying attention or may be bored. It is essential the teacher recognize small fires that may go out by themselves as distinct from larger fires that threaten the forest. If two students are talking during a music activity, it may not be worth it to bring the class to a grinding halt to reprimand them. They may stop on their own, or as the music making activity of the class begins to pick up, they may gain interest. On the other hand, if too many are starting to lose attention, it may be time for a word from the teacher, or it may be time to evaluate the activity, ditch it, and go into plan B. It is very important for music educators to realize the illogical and unsystematic thinking of students in this new preoperational thought period arises from a reorganization of thought from the previous sensori-motor period. Language and symbols are relatively new to students in the early childhood years. Though developmental psychologists disagree on many points, one point of agreement seems to be that all students develop at different rates. Translated into classroom application, this might mean speaking instructions once clearly, but rather than repeat them if they didn’t seem to be understood, model them with singing or actions. This practice may also address students who have auditory processing disorders.
The conceptualization of a music class as a performance addresses many behavioral and developmental issues students may have. It also makes the learning environment more congenial for the students and allows the teacher to optimize the use of classroom instruction time.
Notes
[1] Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000. p. 120
[2] Spencer Pulaski, Mary Ann. An Introduction to Children's Cognitive Development. New York: Harper and Row, 1980.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) continues to be one of the most important figures in the theory of intellectual development. Born in Switzerland, he did most of his important work at the Rousseau Institute in Geneva where he found that younger children before the age of seven think in a different way than older children. He identified four general periods of development: sensori-motor (birth to two), preoperational thought (two to seven), concrete operations (seven to eleven) and formal operations (eleven to adult). The discussion here involves students in Piaget's period two, "preoperational thought," ages two to seven in which the child's mind is rapidly advancing to a new plane leading to the understanding of symbols (including images and words) and requiring a reorganization of thought from the previous sensori-motor period. This cannot be done all at once, and for some time during this period the child's thinking is unsystematic and illogical. [1] The symbolic activity involving nonlinguistic symbols in children's play (representation)[2] and the increasing ability of language to widen the child's horizons are important here.
At a very practical level, the idea of planning a music class as a performance serves to address some of the specific developmental needs of students in Piaget’s “preoperational thought” period. Children in the pre-kindergarten often engage in “parallel play” activities in which they create and imagine with their toys in an individual way rather than share in the act of playing as they begin to in kindergarten. In other words, they do their playing together, but separately. It is only later that they begin to interact with each other directly and understanding this is important from the standpoint of a music educator. The following music class plan demonstrates these theoretical ideas put into practice:
(1) First, the introductory meeting of students and teacher: this most often occurs with students filing into the music classroom or, in some instances, the music teacher entering the general classroom. It is very important that an introductory activity be immediate, musical and “attention-getting.” Immediate, for the sake of good classroom management in which students are kept busy right away and therefore out of trouble; musical, to set up preparatory work for the main lesson included for the day; “attention-getting” to enliven the students and create a community of enjoyment. When a learning experience is planned that achieves three aims, classroom time is being used optimally. In a performance, the artist begins to make music directly following the initial applause as he or she enters the stage. Likewise in a music class, it is important to start and activity right away. I often sing a greeting to my students and invite them to sing immediately in reply. This starts the class right away, but also sets a tone that they have left their other classes behind and now will be engaged in music making for the next period. As a song or exercise is being implemented, it is essential the teacher have the activity to follow clearly in mind. For example, I often have my pre-kindergarteners sit in a circle and sing an opening exercise. The whole class sings “yoo-hoo” on the notes “me- sol” inserting the name of each student as we go around the circle. The focus here is on gathering, group intonation and vocal warm-up. As this activity draws to a close, I have in mind immediately what we will do next. As in a piano recital, say, as soon as the audience applauds the first selection on the program, the performer immediately sits down and plays the second. So also in the music classroom, there can be no gaps of dead time in which the attention of the students and subsequent flow of the class might be lost.
This initial exercise is connected to the work of the day. If that work predominantly involves singing, as in our classroom example at hand, the opening exercise will be vocal. Specifically, if there is a choral piece or folk song that will be taught, the nature of the introductory vocal exercise should relate to that. For example, if we will be spending a lot of time on a slow canon with sustained whole note such as “Brother Martin,” the opening exercise would include the concepts of legato and adagio. Though it would not be expected that most pre-kindergarteners would understand these terms, they can still learn to execute them vocally. A further demonstration of these concepts can be emphasized by the performance of a short excerpt from a piece such as Beethoven’s Pathetique Sonata.
(2) Once the introduction is nearing completion, it is important the teacher be thinking what piece of music will follow. If even half a minute of dead time takes place between the opening exercise and the first piece or activity, the risk of losing the class is great. This next segment begins the “middle” of the class in which a predominant amount of singing occurs, though also interspersed with musical games, and perhaps solfege exercises as well. It can be useful to save some of the most fun activities for the end of classes such as games and other activities involving movement. If certain musical games involve the selection of a leader, this privilege can be reserved as a reward for the individual who demonstrated the best behavior throughout the class.
(3) As the class moves from the singing of the canon to the music appreciation time, I inform my students that the best listener will attain the privilege of being chosen to be the gatekeepers in the “Old Mr. Rabbit” game we will play at the end of class. This system of rewards teaches young students’ good manners when listening to a performance and creates an environment where they are able to focus their attention on a music appreciation example without distractions from their classmates. Rocky Mountain follows. The focus here is on vocal production and a more complex “sol-fa” pattern of “do-me-sol-la.” This is harder for pre-kindergartners than the previous Brother Martin, so I vary the singing with fast and slow to make it fun and keep their attention. Old Mr. Rabbit ends the class. This is a game in which everyone stands and forms a circle and two people face each other to form a gate. As the class sings and passes through the gate, on the last word of the song, the gates comes down and captures a “rabbit.”
Even in the best of circumstances, there will be times when students are not paying attention or may be bored. It is essential the teacher recognize small fires that may go out by themselves as distinct from larger fires that threaten the forest. If two students are talking during a music activity, it may not be worth it to bring the class to a grinding halt to reprimand them. They may stop on their own, or as the music making activity of the class begins to pick up, they may gain interest. On the other hand, if too many are starting to lose attention, it may be time for a word from the teacher, or it may be time to evaluate the activity, ditch it, and go into plan B. It is very important for music educators to realize the illogical and unsystematic thinking of students in this new preoperational thought period arises from a reorganization of thought from the previous sensori-motor period. Language and symbols are relatively new to students in the early childhood years. Though developmental psychologists disagree on many points, one point of agreement seems to be that all students develop at different rates. Translated into classroom application, this might mean speaking instructions once clearly, but rather than repeat them if they didn’t seem to be understood, model them with singing or actions. This practice may also address students who have auditory processing disorders.
The conceptualization of a music class as a performance addresses many behavioral and developmental issues students may have. It also makes the learning environment more congenial for the students and allows the teacher to optimize the use of classroom instruction time.
Notes
[1] Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000. p. 120
[2] Spencer Pulaski, Mary Ann. An Introduction to Children's Cognitive Development. New York: Harper and Row, 1980.
Max Reger’s “Improvisationen, Op. 18, No. 1 and “No. 2, for piano: Two Transcription Suggestions for Organ
Max Reger’s (March 19, 1873 – May 11, 1916) “Improvisation, Op. 18, No. 1 Allegretto con Grazia” and “No. 2, Andantino Con Expression” for piano are two short pieces that can be easily transcribed for use as organ pieces for church or recital. For organists who regularly teach piano, these pieces can be embedded into a piano curriculum designed to plant the seeds to inspire young piano students to pursue future organ study. This article suggests a few strategies for transcribing the pieces as well as using them as material to teach students elements of that transcription process.
In the case of both these pieces, I suggest first memorizing them on the piano, emphasizing the pianistic elements including pedaling, legato playing, voice leading, and expression. It is useful to approach these pieces purely as the piano pieces Reger wrote them to be, rather than considering anything organistic about them at this stage. Once the pieces are brought to the organ, it is useful to conceive the pedal lines as a duplications of the left hand piano bass lines rather then replacements for them. In other words, for ease of learning, include the left hand even on the organ, simply adding the pedal line below. When using these for teaching, I encourage teachers not to use these pieces until the student has spent at least one year with a good method book such as the Flor Peeters “Little Organ Book.”
The first movement can be used to teach many important technical and musical elements of organ playing while also providing a study in organ transcription. For example, the alto voice in the “Allegretto con Grazia” can be brought out on the organ with distinct articulation patterns. This leads students to develop finger independence and to understand the distinction between piano and organ in approaches to expression.
The second movement provides students with perspectives on the difference between voice leading on the piano and solo voice registration on the organ. The very beautiful romantic melody that opens this movement when treated on the piano, gives the opportunity for the development of legato playing and expression. On the organ, however, a very different approach is required as students learn to select a registration for a solo voice—perhaps a cornet or English horn- and gain insights into controlling and being expressive with a sumptuous 19th-century melody with accompaniment.
For piano students intent on organ study, it is useful to have a base of piano repertory that can also be played on the organ. This is true for those who may be starting some early church service playing and even those who might be beginning to perform on organ and piano recitals. But also for seasoned organists, these pieces are useful for church and recital both on piano or organ.
Historical musicological dimensions to both composer and composition are important to consider. Students may find it interesting, for example, to learn Reger’s full name is Johann Baptist Joseph Maximillian Reger and that he was a German composer, organist, pianist and teacher. Also, the many aspects of Reger’s fiery, strong-willed personality situated within the cultural context of the time may both inspire and intrigue the young beginning organist.
References
Reger, Max (1873-1916). Improvisationen für Klavier, Op. 18. Mainz: Schott Musik International, 1910.
Photo Sources
Faulkner, Anne S. What We Hear in Music. Victor Talking Machine Co., 1913
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/89/Max_reger.jpg
In the case of both these pieces, I suggest first memorizing them on the piano, emphasizing the pianistic elements including pedaling, legato playing, voice leading, and expression. It is useful to approach these pieces purely as the piano pieces Reger wrote them to be, rather than considering anything organistic about them at this stage. Once the pieces are brought to the organ, it is useful to conceive the pedal lines as a duplications of the left hand piano bass lines rather then replacements for them. In other words, for ease of learning, include the left hand even on the organ, simply adding the pedal line below. When using these for teaching, I encourage teachers not to use these pieces until the student has spent at least one year with a good method book such as the Flor Peeters “Little Organ Book.”
The first movement can be used to teach many important technical and musical elements of organ playing while also providing a study in organ transcription. For example, the alto voice in the “Allegretto con Grazia” can be brought out on the organ with distinct articulation patterns. This leads students to develop finger independence and to understand the distinction between piano and organ in approaches to expression.
The second movement provides students with perspectives on the difference between voice leading on the piano and solo voice registration on the organ. The very beautiful romantic melody that opens this movement when treated on the piano, gives the opportunity for the development of legato playing and expression. On the organ, however, a very different approach is required as students learn to select a registration for a solo voice—perhaps a cornet or English horn- and gain insights into controlling and being expressive with a sumptuous 19th-century melody with accompaniment.
For piano students intent on organ study, it is useful to have a base of piano repertory that can also be played on the organ. This is true for those who may be starting some early church service playing and even those who might be beginning to perform on organ and piano recitals. But also for seasoned organists, these pieces are useful for church and recital both on piano or organ.
Historical musicological dimensions to both composer and composition are important to consider. Students may find it interesting, for example, to learn Reger’s full name is Johann Baptist Joseph Maximillian Reger and that he was a German composer, organist, pianist and teacher. Also, the many aspects of Reger’s fiery, strong-willed personality situated within the cultural context of the time may both inspire and intrigue the young beginning organist.
References
Reger, Max (1873-1916). Improvisationen für Klavier, Op. 18. Mainz: Schott Musik International, 1910.
Photo Sources
Faulkner, Anne S. What We Hear in Music. Victor Talking Machine Co., 1913
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/89/Max_reger.jpg
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